Nickel-iron catalyst and methods of making and using same

ABSTRACT

A catalyst includes a derivative of an iron-containing clay which includes at least one member selected from the group consisting of a nickel-iron bimetallic structure according to XRD and a nickel-iron bimetallic oxide structure according to XRD. The catalyst can be used in various reactions, such as carbon dioxide methanation and dry reforming of methane and carbon dioxide to produce syngas.

FIELD

The disclosure relates to nickel-iron catalysts and methods of makingand using such catalysts. In certain embodiments, the catalysts can beused to catalyze a carbon dioxide methanation reaction. In someembodiments, the catalysts can be used to catalyze dry reforming ofmethane and carbon dioxide to produce syngas.

BACKGROUND

In carbon dioxide methanation, carbon dioxide (CO₂) and hydrogen (H₂)are converted to methane (CH₄) and water (H₂O). Thus, carbon dioxidemethanation can serve as a source of methane, which has significantcommercial use in the chemical industry. In dry reforming of methane andcarbon dioxide, methane and carbon dioxide are converted to syngas,which contains hydrogen and carbon monoxide (CO). Therefore, dryreforming of methane and carbon dioxide enables the consumption of twogreenhouse gases to produce syngas, which is an important feedstock inthe chemical industry.

SUMMARY

The disclosure relates to catalysts and related methods of making andusing such catalysts. The catalysts can exhibit good efficiency whenused to catalyze carbon dioxide methanation and/or dry reforming ofmethane and carbon dioxide to produce syngas. The catalysts can berelatively easy and inexpensive to make.

In general, the catalysts are derivatives of iron-containing clays,wherein the catalysts include a nickel-iron bimetallic structureaccording to X-ray diffraction (XRD) and/or a nickel-iron bimetallicoxide structure according to XRD. Iron-containing clays can havedesirable physicochemical and textural properties making them suitablematerials for catalytic applications, such as a comparatively highsurface area. As a result, the catalysts can also have a relatively highsurface area, which can result in enhanced catalytic performance.Further, the catalysts can exhibit comparatively high reactantconversions, high product yields and/or good selectivity for the desiredproducts, such as when used in carbon dioxide methanation and/or dryreforming of methane and carbon dioxide to produce syngas. In addition,the catalysts can also exhibit relatively low yields for undesirableproducts, such as carbon monoxide in carbon dioxide methanation.Moreover, iron-containing clays are relatively low in cost andcomparatively abundant resulting in inexpensive catalysts and catalyststhat are relatively inexpensive to make.

The disclosure provides methods of making the catalysts. In someembodiments, the methods include treating an iron-containing clay withan acid to form an intermediate followed by impregnating theintermediate with nickel. The methods can also include certain steps ofheating, neutralization and/or drying. The methods of making thecatalysts can be relatively simple and inexpensive.

In certain embodiments, the catalysts can be used to catalyze carbondioxide methanation. Optionally, the resulting methane can be used innatural gas or as a feedstock to produce downstream products. Thecatalysts can exhibit high carbon dioxide conversion, high methaneyields and/or low carbon monoxide yields. In some embodiments, thecatalysts have a carbon dioxide conversion of at least 50% at atemperature of 400° C., a pressure of 1.5 bar, and a total feed gashourly space velocity (GHSV) of 1060 h⁻¹. In certain embodiments, thecatalysts have a methane yield of at least 20% at a temperature of 400°C., a pressure of 1.5 bar, and a total feed GHSV of 1060 h⁻¹. In someembodiments, the catalyst has a yield of carbon monoxide at atemperature of 400° C., a pressure of 1.5 bar, and a total feed GHSV of1060 h⁻¹ that is so low that it is undetectable. For example, in certainembodiments, the catalyst has a yield of carbon monoxide of less than 1%(e.g., less than 0.5%) at a temperature of 400° C., a pressure of 1.5bar, and a total feed GHSV of 1060 h⁻¹.

In certain embodiments, the catalysts can be used to catalyze dryreforming of methane and carbon dioxide to produce syngas. In suchreactions, greenhouse gases are converted to a useful feedstock for theproduction of various chemicals. The catalyst cans exhibit high carbondioxide conversion, high methane conversion and/or high hydrogen yield.In certain embodiments, the catalyst has a carbon dioxide conversion ofat least 80% at a temperature of 800° C., a pressure of 2 bar, and atotal feed GHSV of 1477 h⁻¹. In certain embodiments, the catalyst has amethane conversion of at least 80% at a temperature of 800° C., apressure of 2 bar, and a total feed GHSV of 1477 h⁻¹. In certainembodiments, the catalyst has a hydrogen yield of at least 50% at atemperature of 800° C., a pressure of 2 bar, and a gas hourly spacevelocity of 1477 h⁻¹.

In a first aspect, the disclosure provides a catalyst that includes aderivative of an iron-containing clay which includes at least one memberselected from the group consisting of a nickel-iron bimetallic structureaccording to XRD and a nickel-iron bimetallic oxide structure accordingto XRD.

In some embodiments, according to XRD, the catalyst includes anickel-iron bimetallic structure, such as Fe_(0.5)Ni_(0.49), accordingto XRD.

In some embodiments, the catalyst includes a nickel-iron bimetallicoxide structure, such as Fe_(1.7)Ni_(1.4)O₄, according to XRD.

In some embodiments, the catalyst includes a nickel-iron bimetallicstructure according to XRD and a nickel-iron bimetallic oxide structureaccording to XRD.

In some embodiments, the catalyst includes at least 10 weight percentnickel oxide according to X-ray fluorescence (XRF).

In some embodiments, according to XRF, the catalyst includes at leastone oxide of a member selected from the group consisting of iron,silicon, aluminum and calcium.

In some embodiments, the iron-containing clay includes at least onemember selected from the group consisting of nontronite, illite andactinolite.

In some embodiments, the catalyst has a surface area of at least 40m²g⁻¹.

In a second aspect, the disclosure provides a method that includestreating an iron-containing clay with an acid to form an intermediate,and impregnating the intermediate with nickel. The method forms acatalyst which includes a derivative of an iron-containing clay whichincludes at least one member selected from the group consisting of anickel-iron bimetallic structure according to XRD and a nickel-ironbimetallic oxide structure according to XRD.

In some embodiments, the acid includes a member selected from the groupconsisting of hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid.

In some embodiments, impregnating the intermediate with nickel includescontacting the intermediate with a nickel salt.

In some embodiments, treating the iron with the acid to form theintermediate includes heating to at least 50° C. for at least 30minutes.

In some embodiments, treating the iron with the acid to form theintermediate includes neutralizing the acid.

In a third aspect, the disclosure provides a method that includes usinga catalyst to convert carbon dioxide and hydrogen to methane and water.The catalyst includes a derivative of an iron-containing clay whichincludes at least one member selected from the group consisting of anickel-iron bimetallic structure according to XRD and a nickel-ironbimetallic oxide structure according to XRD.

In some embodiments, the catalyst has a carbon dioxide conversion of atleast 50% (e.g., at least 60%) at a temperature of 400° C., a pressureof 1.5 bar, and a total feed GHSV of 1060 h⁻¹.

In some embodiments, the catalyst has a yield of methane of at least 20%(e.g., at least 25%) at a temperature of 400° C., a pressure of 1.5 bar,and a total feed GHSV of 1060 h⁻¹.

In some embodiments, the catalyst has a yield of carbon monoxide at atemperature of 400° C., a pressure of 1.5 bar, and a total feed GHSV of1060 h⁻¹ that is so low that it is undetectable. For example in certainembodiments, the catalyst has a yield of carbon monoxide of less than 1%(e.g., less than 0.5%) at a temperature of 400° C., a pressure of 1.5bar, and a total feed GHSV of 1060 h⁻¹.

In some embodiments, according to XRF, the catalyst includes at leastone oxide of a member selected from the group consisting of nickel,iron, silicon, aluminum and calcium. And the iron-containing clayincludes at least one member selected from the group consisting ofnontronite, illite and actinolite.

In a fourth aspect, the disclosure provides a method that includes usinga catalyst to convert methane and carbon dioxide to hydrogen and carbonmonoxide. The catalyst includes a derivative of an iron-containing claywhich includes at least one member selected from the group consisting ofa nickel-iron bimetallic structure according to XRD and a nickel-ironbimetallic oxide structure according to XRD.

In some embodiments, the catalyst has a carbon dioxide conversion of atleast 80% (e.g., at least 85%) at a temperature of 800° C., a pressureof 2 bar, and a total feed GHSV of 1477 h⁻¹.

In some embodiments, the catalyst has a methane conversion of at least80% (e.g., at least 85%) at a temperature of 800° C., a pressure of 2bar, and a total feed GHSV of 1477 h⁻¹.

In some embodiments, the catalyst has a yield of hydrogen gas of atleast 50% (e.g., at least 60%) at a temperature of 800° C., a pressureof 2 bar, and a total feed GHSV of 1477 h⁻¹.

In some embodiments, the catalyst includes a nickel-iron bimetallicstructure, such as Fe_(0.5)Ni_(0.49), according to XRD.

In some embodiments, the catalyst includes a nickel-iron bimetallicoxide structure, such as Fe_(1.7)Ni_(1.4)O₄, according to XRD.

In some embodiments, the catalyst includes a nickel-iron bimetallicstructure according to XRD and a nickel-iron bimetallic oxide structureaccording to XRD.

In some embodiments, the catalyst includes at least 10 weight percentnickel oxide according to XRF.

In some embodiments, according to XRF, the catalyst includes at leastone oxide of a member selected from the group consisting of iron,silicon, aluminum and calcium.

In some embodiments, the iron-containing clay includes at least onemember selected from the group consisting of nontronite, illite andactinolite.

In some embodiments, the catalyst has a surface area of at least 40m²g⁻¹.

In some embodiments, the method further includes treating theiron-containing clay with an acid to form an intermediate, impregnatingthe intermediate with nickel. In some embodiments, the acid ishydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid. In some embodiments, impregnatingthe intermediate with nickel includes contacting the intermediate with anickel salt. In some embodiments, treating the iron with the acid toform the intermediate includes heating to at least 50° C. for at least30 minutes. In some embodiments, treating the iron with the acid to formthe intermediate includes neutralizing the acid.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 is an XRD pattern of a catalyst.

FIG. 2 shows a graph of CO₂ conversion data during catalyzed carbondioxide methanation.

FIG. 3 shows a graph of methane yield during catalyzed carbon dioxidemethanation.

FIG. 4 shows graphs of CO₂ conversion and methane conversion duringcatalyzed dry reforming of methane and CO₂.

FIG. 5 shows a graph of hydrogen yield during catalyzed dry reforming ofmethane and CO₂.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Catalysts

Generally, a catalyst according to the disclosure is a derivative of aniron-containing clay, wherein the catalyst includes a nickel-ironbimetallic structure according to XRD and/or a nickel-iron bimetallicoxide structure according to XRD.

In some embodiments, the iron-containing clay is a smectite clay, suchas nontronite. In certain embodiments, the iron-containing clay isillite or actinolite. In some embodiments, the iron-containing clay is alocally available clay. Without wishing to be bound by theory, it isbelieved that the nickel-iron bimetallic structure and/or thenickel-iron bimetallic oxide structure is an active catalyst for CO₂methanation and/or for dry reforming reaction. Also without wishing tobe bound by theory, it is believed that the iron-containing clay servesas an iron source for the active phase of the catalyst. Further withoutwishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that the physicochemicaland textural properties, such as the aluminosilicate phase and porousstructure, of the iron-containing clay allow it to serve as a goodcatalyst support as well as a promoter catalyst for CO₂ methanationand/or for dry reforming reaction. The modified iron-containing clayserves as the active and support catalyst for CO₂ methanation and/or fordry reforming reaction.

The nickel-iron bimetallic structure according to XRD results from aninteraction between nickel and iron in the catalyst. In someembodiments, according to XRD, the nickel-iron bimetallic isFe_(0.5)Ni_(0.49).

In certain embodiments, according to XRD, the nickel-iron bimetallicoxide is Fe_(1.7)Ni_(1.4)O₄.

In general, according to XRF, the catalyst further includes oxides ofnickel, iron, aluminum, silicon and/or calcium. In some embodiments,according to XRF, the catalyst includes nickel oxide (NiO), iron oxide(Fe₂O₃), silicon dioxide (SiO₂), aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃), and/or calciumoxide (CaO). Typically, according to XRF, each of these oxides ispresent in the catalyst. Generally, the concentration of NiO in thecatalyst depends on the Ni loading during the synthesis of the catalyst.Often, the concentration of each of the oxides of iron, silicon,aluminum and calcium is determined by the concentration of the oxide inthe iron-containing clay.

In certain embodiments, according to XRF, the catalyst contains 10-65weight percent (wt. %) (e.g., 10-55 wt. %, 20-65 wt. %, 20-55 wt. %,25-65 wt. %, 25-55 wt., 30-65 wt. %, 30-55 wt. %, 35-65 wt. %, 35-55wt., 40-65 wt. %, 40-55 wt. %, 45-65 wt. %, 45-55 wt. %, 50-55 wt. %)NiO.

In some embodiments, according to XRF, the catalyst contains 10-60 wt. %(e.g., 10-50 wt. %, 20-60 wt. %, 20-50 wt. %, 30-60 wt. %, 30-50 wt. %,40-65 wt. %, 40-50 wt. %, 40-45 wt. %) Fe₂O₃.

In certain embodiments, according to XRF, the catalyst contains 1-10 wt.% (e.g., 1-8 wt. %, 1-6 wt. %, 2-10 wt. %, 2-8 wt. %, 2-6 wt. %, 3-10wt. %, 3-8 wt. %, 3-6 wt. %) SiO₂.

In some embodiments, according to XRF, the catalyst contains 0.1-2 wt. %(e.g., 0.1-1.5 wt. %, 0.2-2 wt. %, 0.2-1.5 wt. %, 0.5-2 wt. %, 0.5-1.5wt. %, 1-2 wt. %, 1-1.5 wt. %) Al₂O₃.

In certain embodiments, according to XRF, the catalyst contains 0.1-1wt. % (e.g., 0.1-0.8 wt. %, 0.2-1 wt. %, 0.2-0.8 wt. %, 0.4-1 wt. %,0.4-0.8 wt. %) CaO.

In some embodiments, according to XRF, the catalyst contains: a) 10-65wt. % (e.g., 10-55 wt. %, 20-65 wt. %, 20-55 wt. %, 25-65 wt. %, 25-55wt., 30-65 wt. %, 30-55 wt. %, 35-65 wt. %, 35-55 wt., 40-65 wt. %,40-55 wt. %, 45-65 wt. %, 45-55 wt. %, 50-55 wt. %) NiO; b) 10-60 wt. %(e.g., 10-50 wt. %, 20-60 wt. %, 20-50 wt. %, 30-60 wt. %, 30-50 wt. %,40-65 wt. %, 40-50 wt. %, 40-45 wt. %) Fe₂O₃; c) the catalyst contains1-10 wt. % (e.g., 1-8 wt. %, 1-6 wt. %, 2-10 wt. %, 2-8 wt. %, 2-6 wt.%, 3-10 wt. %, 3-8 wt. %, 3-6 wt. %) SiO₂; d) 0.1-2 wt. % (e.g., 0.1-1.5wt. %, 0.2-2 wt. %, 0.2-1.5 wt. %, 0.5-2 wt. %, 0.5-1.5 wt. %, 1-2 wt.%, 1-1.5 wt. %) Al₂O₃; and e) 0.1-1 wt. % (e.g., 0.1-0.8 wt. %, 0.2-1wt. %, 0.2-0.8 wt. %, 0.4-1 wt. %, 0.4-0.8 wt. %) CaO.

In some embodiments, the catalyst may have at least one XRD peak (e.g. aleast two XRD peaks, at least three XRD peaks, at least four XRD peaks,at least five XRD peaks, at least six XRD peaks, at least seven XRDpeaks) as depicted in FIG. 2 . In some embodiments, the catalyst mayhave an XRD pattern as substantially depicted in FIG. 2 .

In certain embodiments, the catalyst has textural properties distinctfrom those of the iron-containing clay starting material that arebeneficial for catalysis. As an example, in certain embodiments, thecatalyst has a surface area greater than the surface area of theiron-containing clay starting material. In certain embodiments, thecatalyst has a surface area of at least 40 m²g⁻¹ (e.g. at least 50m²g⁻¹, 60 m²g⁻¹, 70 m²g⁻¹, 80 m²g⁻¹, 90 m²g⁻¹) and/or at most 250 m²g⁻¹(e.g., at most 200 m²g⁻¹). In certain embodiments, the surface area isdetermined by N₂ sorption.

Methods of Making Catalysts

In general, the catalyst is made by a method that includes firstmodifying the iron-containing clay, followed by incorporation(impregnation) of nickel. In certain embodiments, the iron-containingclay is modified by acid treatment.

In some embodiments, the method includes treating the iron-containingclay with an acid, such as hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid, to forman intermediate. As an example, a mixture containing the iron-containingclay and acid can be heated to at least 50° C. (e.g., at least 60° C.,at least 70° C., at least 80° C., at least 90° C.) and/or at most 100°C. for at least 30 minutes (e.g. at least one hour, at least two hours,at least three hours, at least four hours) and/or at most five hours.

In certain embodiments, the resulting liquid is neutralized with a base,such as ammonium hydroxide, to attain a pH of 6.5-7.5 (e.g., 7).Optionally, this step can be performed by slowly adding the base whilestirring.

In some embodiments, the resulting liquid is filtered and dried at anelevated temperature (e.g., at 90-110° C., such as at 100° C.) for aperiod of time (e.g., 5 hours to 24 hours) to produce an intermediate(acid activated iron-containing clay).

In some embodiments, a nickel salt, such as nickel nitrate hexahydrateor nickel chloride, is dissolved in a solvent, such as ethanol, and theresulting solution and intermediate are mixed with stirring for a periodof time (e.g., 3-5 hours, such as 4 hours) to produce a sample.

In certain embodiments, the sample is dried at an elevated temperature(e.g., at 90-110° C., such as at 100° C.) for a period of time (e.g.,4-6 hours) followed by calcination at an elevated temperature (e.g.,400-800° C., 500-700° C., 600° C.) for a period of time (e.g., 2-4hours, such as 3 hours) to yield the catalyst.

Methods of Using Catalysts for Carbon Dioxide Methanation

In some embodiments, the catalyst is used to catalyze carbon dioxidemethanation in which carbon dioxide and hydrogen are converted tomethane and water. In such embodiments, the catalyst can exhibit a highcarbon dioxide conversion, a high methane yield and/or a low carbonmonoxide yields. In certain embodiments, the catalyst can have a carbondioxide conversion of 50-99% (e.g., 50-95%, 60-99%, 60-95%, 70-99%,70-95%, 80-99%, 80-95%) at a temperature of 400° C., a pressure of 1.5bar, and a total feed GHSV of 1060 h⁻¹. In some embodiments, thecatalysts can have a methane yield of 20-50% (e.g., 20-45%, 20-40%,25-50%, 25-45%, 25-40%, 30-45%, 30-40%) at a temperature of 400° C., apressure of 1.5 bar, and a total feed GHSV of 1060 h⁻¹. In certainembodiments, the catalyst can have a carbon monoxide yield of less than40% (e.g., less than 35%, less than 30%, less than 20%, less than 10%,less than 9%, less than 8%, less than 7%, less than 6%, less than 5%,less than 4%, less than 3%, less than 2%, less than 1%, less than 0.5%,less than 0.1%) at a temperature of 400° C., a pressure of 1.5 bar, anda total feed GHSV of 1060 h⁻¹. In some embodiments, the catalyst canhave a carbon monoxide yield that is below the detection limit of theinstrument used to determine the yield.

In some embodiments, the methane produced is used as natural gas, e.g.,in a commercial and/or industrial setting. In some embodiments, themethane produced is used as a feedstock to produce downstream products,such as ethylene, hydrogen and/or ammonia.

Methods of Using Catalysts for Dry Reforming

In certain embodiments, the catalysts are used to catalyze dry reformingof methane and carbon dioxide to produce syngas, which includes hydrogenand carbon monoxide. In such embodiments, the catalyst can exhibit ahigh carbon dioxide conversion, a high methane conversion and/or a highhydrogen yield. In certain embodiments, the catalyst can have a carbondioxide conversion of 60-99% (e.g., 60-95%, 60-90%, 70-99%, 70-95%,70-90%, 75-99%, 75-95%, 75-90%, 80-99%, 80-95%, 80-90%) at a temperatureof 800° C., a pressure of 2 bar, and a total feed GHSV of 1477 h⁻¹. Insome embodiments, the catalyst can have a methane conversion of 60-95%(e.g., 60-90%, 70-95%, 70-90%, 75-95%, 75-90%, 80-95%, 80-90%) at atemperature of 800° C., a pressure of 2 bar, and a total feed GHSV of1477 h⁻¹. In certain embodiments, the catalyst can have a hydrogen yieldof 40-95% (e.g. 40-90%, 40-80%, 40-70%, 40-60%, 50-95%, 50-90%, 50-80%,50-70%, 50-60%, 75-95%, 75-90%, 80-95%, 80-90%) at a temperature of 800°C., a pressure of 2 bar, and a gas hourly space velocity of 1477 h⁻¹.

In certain embodiments, the syngas generated has a desirable H₂/CO ratiofor Fischer-Tropsch synthesis of liquid hydrocarbons and/or thesynthesis of oxygenated chemical compounds.

EXAMPLES Example 1: Synthesis of Catalyst

grams of nontronite (Cheney, Washington, Ward's Natural ScienceEstablishment, Inc., having a surface area of 29 m² g⁻¹ as determined byN₂ sorption) was dissolved in 100 milliliters of deionized water. 33milliliters of 37% hydrochloric acid (Sigma-Aldrich) were mixed with 367milliliters of deionized water and added to the nontronite solution. Themixture was stirred and heated at 60° C. for 4 hours. 30 milliliters ofammonium hydroxide (Sigma-Aldrich) was slowly added to the mixture whilestirring until a pH of 7 was reached. The resulting solution wasfiltered and dried in the oven at 100° C. to produce acid activatednontronite clay. 12 grams of nickel nitrate hexahydrate (Sigma-Aldrich)were dissolved in 50 milliliters of ethanol (Sigma-Aldrich), and theresulting solution was mixed with the acid activated nontronite clay andstirred for 4 hours. The produced sample was dried in the oven at 100°C. followed by calcination at 600° C. for 3 hours.

The catalyst had a surface area of 91 m² g⁻¹ as determined by N₂sorption. 0.7 g of catalyst in the form of a powder was pressed with 0.9g XRF binder (CEREOX® wax binder, FLUXANA) to provide a sample for XRF.Table 1 shows information regarding constituents of the catalyst in thesample as determined using XRF. The remainder of the sample (to equal100%) was taken up by the binder (hydrogen and carbon). Table 2 showsinformation regarding constituents of the catalyst, correcting for thepresence of the binder.

TABLE 1 Oxides NiO Fe₂O₃ SiO₂ Al₂O₃ CaO Concentration 20.8 16.2 1.7 0.30.2 (wt %)

TABLE 2 Oxides NiO Fe₂O₃ SiO₂ Al₂O₃ CaO Concentration 48.5 43.4 5.5 1.10.5 (wt %)

FIG. 2 is an XRD pattern of the catalyst in Example 1. The XRD patternshows that the catalyst contained a nickel-iron bimetallic structure(Fe_(0.5)Ni_(0.49)) in which there was an interaction between iron andnickel. The XRD pattern also shows that the catalyst contained anickel-iron bimetallic oxide structure (Fe_(1.7)N_(1.4)O₄.

Example 2: Carbon Dioxide Methanation

Catalyst prepared according to Example 1 was used in a carbon dioxidemethanation experiment at temperatures of 300° C. and 400° C. and apressure of 1.5 bar. A feed gas containing 25% carbon dioxide and 75%hydrogen flowed over the catalyst at a total feed GHSV of 1060 h⁻¹. Theexperiment was performed using a PID reactor system (PID ENG&TECH).

The CO₂ conversion was calculated as:

${{CO}_{2}{conversion}(\%)} = {\frac{{Moles}{of}{CO}_{2}{consumed}}{{Moles}{of}{CO}_{2}{provided}} \times 100.}$

The methane yield (%) was calculated as:

${{Methane}{yield}(\%)} = {\frac{{Actual}{yield}}{{Theoretical}{yield}} \times 100.}$

The measured CO₂ conversion (%) is shown in FIG. 2 . The methane yield(%) was measured using gas chromatography and is shown in FIG. 3 .

As shown in FIGS. 2 and 3 , the carbon dioxide methanation experimentshowed that the catalyst provided good CO₂ conversion and good methaneyield.

Example 3: Dry Reforming of Methane

Catalyst prepared according to Example 1 was used in a dry reforming ofmethane experiment at a temperature of 800° C., a pressure of 2 bar. Afeed gas containing carbon dioxide and methane at a total feed GHSV 1477h⁻¹. The experiment was performed using a PID reactor system (PIDENG&TECH).

The methane converson was calculated as:

${{Methane}{conversion}(\%)} = {\frac{{Moles}{of}{methane}{consumed}}{{Moles}{of}{methane}{provided}} \times 100.}$

The hydrogen gas yield (%) was calculated as:

${{Hydrogen}{yield}(\%)} = {\frac{{Actual}{yield}}{{Theoretical}{yield}} \times 100.}$

The CO₂ conversion was calculated as:

${{CO}_{2}{conversion}(\%)} = {\frac{{Moles}{of}{CO}_{2}{consumed}}{{Moles}{of}{CO}_{2}{provided}} \times 100.}$

The methane conversion (%) and the measured CO₂ conversion (%) weremeasured using gas chromatography and are shown in FIG. 4 , where thetriangles represent measured methane conversion (%) and the circlesrepresent measured CO₂ conversion (%). The hydrogen yield (%) wasmeasured using gas chromatography and is shown in FIG. 5 . The carbonmonoxide yield (%) was measured using gas chromatography and was about35%.

As shown in FIGS. 4 and 5 , the dry reforming of methane experimentshowed that the catalyst provided good CO₂ conversion, good methaneconversion and good hydrogen yield. A relatively low carbon monoxideyield was also obtained.

Other Embodiments

While certain embodiments have been described, the disclosure is notlimited to such embodiments.

As an example, while the catalysts have been described as being used indry reforming of methane and carbon dioxide to produce syngas, thedisclosure is not limited in this manner. For example, in someembodiments, the catalysts can be used in dry reforming of other alkanes(e.g., ethane, propane) to form syngas.

As another example, while certain methods of using the catalysts havebeen described, the disclosure is not limited to such uses. For example,in some embodiments, the catalysts can be used to catalyze thehydrogenation of CO₂ to form products other than methane, such as one ormore alcohols and/or one or more olefins. Further examples includehydrogenation reactions, reforming of hydrocarbons, dehydrogenation ofammonia, and conversion of CO_(x) to hydrocarbons.

1. A catalyst, comprising: a derivative of an iron-containing clay whichcomprises at least one member selected from the group consisting of anickel-iron bimetallic structure according to X-ray diffraction and anickel-iron bimetallic oxide structure according to X-ray diffraction,wherein the catalyst has a surface area of at least 40 m²g⁻¹.
 2. Thecatalyst of claim 1, wherein the catalyst comprises a nickel-ironbimetallic structure according to X-ray diffraction.
 3. The catalyst ofclaim 2, wherein the nickel-iron bimetallic structure comprisesFe_(0.5)Ni_(1.49) according to X-ray diffraction.
 4. The catalyst ofclaim 1, wherein the catalyst comprises a nickel-iron bimetallic oxidestructure according to X-ray diffraction.
 5. The catalyst of claim 4,wherein the nickel-iron bimetallic oxide structure comprisesFe_(1.7)Ni_(1.4)O₄ according to X-ray diffraction.
 6. The catalyst ofclaim 1, wherein the catalyst comprises a nickel-iron bimetallicstructure according to X-ray diffraction and a nickel-iron bimetallicoxide structure according to X-ray diffraction.
 7. The catalyst of claim1, wherein the catalyst comprises at least 10 weight percent nickeloxide according to X-ray fluorescence.
 8. The catalyst of claim 1,wherein, according to X-ray fluorescence, the catalyst comprises atleast one oxide of a member selected from the group consisting of iron,silicon, aluminum and calcium.
 9. The catalyst of claim 1, wherein theiron-containing clay comprises at least one member selected from thegroup consisting of nontronite, illite and actinolite.
 10. (canceled)11. A method, comprising: treating an iron-containing clay with an acidto form an intermediate; and impregnating the intermediate with nickel,wherein the method forms a catalyst which comprises a derivative of aniron-containing clay which comprises at least one member selected fromthe group consisting of a nickel-iron bimetallic structure according toX-ray diffraction and a nickel-iron bimetallic oxide structure accordingto X-ray diffraction, and wherein the catalyst has a surface area offrom 40 m²g⁻¹ to 250 m²g⁻¹.
 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the acidcomprises a member selected from the group consisting of hydrochloricacid and sulfuric acid.
 13. The method of claim 11, wherein impregnatingthe intermediate with nickel comprises contacting the intermediate witha nickel salt.
 14. The method of claim 11, wherein treating theiron-containing clay with the acid to form the intermediate comprisesheating to at least 50° C. for at least 30 minutes.
 15. The method ofclaim 11, wherein treating the iron-containing clay with the acid toform the intermediate comprises neutralizing the acid.
 16. A method,comprising: contacting carbon dioxide and hydrogen with a catalyst toconvert the carbon dioxide and hydrogen to methane and water, whereinthe catalyst comprises a derivative of an iron-containing clay whichcomprises at least one member selected from the group consisting of anickel-iron bimetallic structure according to X-ray diffraction and anickel-iron bimetallic oxide structure according to X-ray diffraction.17. The method of claim 16, wherein the catalyst has a carbon dioxideconversion of at least 50% at a temperature of 400° C., a pressure of1.5 bar, and a total feed gas hourly space velocity of 1060 h⁻¹.
 18. Themethod of claim 16, wherein the catalyst has a yield of methane of atleast 20% at a temperature of 400° C., a pressure of 1.5 bar, and atotal feed gas hourly space velocity of 1060 h⁻¹.
 19. The method ofclaim 16, wherein the catalyst has a yield of carbon monoxide of lessthan 1% at a temperature of 400° C., a pressure of 1.5 bar, and a totalfeed gas hourly space velocity of 1060 h⁻¹.
 20. The method of claim 16,wherein: according to X-ray fluorescence, the catalyst comprises atleast one oxide of a member selected from the group consisting ofnickel, iron, silicon, aluminum and calcium; and the iron-containingclay comprises at least one member selected from the group consisting ofnontronite, illite and actinolite.
 21. The catalyst of claim 1, whereinthe catalyst has a surface area of at most 250 m²g⁻¹.